ELL P2SA A LEVELS notes

ELL P2SA NOTES Lexical change: 1. Compounding 2. Clipping a. fridge 3. Blending a. smog b. Motel c. Brunch d. Infotainment 4. Affixation: adding prefixes or suffixes to form another word 5. Levelling: one form of language becomes more like another with which it is somehow associated 6. Back-formation: deriving a shorter word from a longer one, by deleting an imagined aff ix a. burglar → burgle b. Orientation → orientate c. Editor → edit 7. Abbreviations: initialisms or acronyms 8. Conversion (V to N, Adj to N, N to V, Adj to V) 9. Borrowing a. Conventionalisation: when the foreign word becomes a loanword, so adopting the the sound + other linguistic characteristics of the receiving language. Speakers don’t perceive it as a loanword, but as a native word b. Loan translation (calques): literal translation of an idiom, figurative expression, or phrase from another lang - 洗脑 (brainwash) - 好久不见 (long time no see) - 丢脸 (lose face) - Vorwort (German; foreword) 10. Coinages 11. Folk etymology Semantic change: 1. Semantic widening 2. “ bleaching a. awful, terrible, horrible, awesome

3. Metaphorization: establishing link between 2 concepts a. social butterfly 4. “ narrowing, or specialization 5. “ amelioration or elevation a. from ‘fond’ (foolish) to ‘fond’ (affectionate towards) 6. “ pejoration or deterioration TERMS WHAT Standard 3 main branches, also look at Examples for more info Formal standard: - applied primarily to written language and the most formal spoken language situations - objective standards prescribed by language authorities - standards codified in usage books / dictionaries / other written texts - conservative outlook on lang reforms Informal standard: - Applied to spoken language - Determined by actual usage patterns of speakers - Listener judgement essential in determining socially acceptable norms - Multiple norms of acceptability - Incorporates regional and social considerations - Defined negatively by the avoidance of socially stigmatized linguistic structures Vernacular: - Applied to spoken lang - Determined by usage patterns of speakers - Listener judgement essential in determining social unacceptability - Defined by the presence of a set of socially stigmatized linguistic structures Accent differences A particular way in which a group of people pronounce a language. - Regional - Social - Ethnic

- Individual Register A variety of language used for a particular purpose, or in a particular social setting. Some linguists prefer ‘style’, keeping ‘register’ for a more specific meaning of specialised language, e.g. academic jargon Dialect *the distinction between language and dialect cannot be made on purely linguistic grounds but is intricately tied to sociopolitical and sociocultural considerations A variety of language which is distinguishable by its grammar and vocabulary - Regiolect - Ethnolect - Sociolect - Idiolect Vernacular Ordinary, everyday speech of a particular community which is noticeably different from the standard form of the language. Largely considered as a speaker’s native dialect or variety ✗ political or socioeconomic value ✓ cultural value Vernacularisation (nationalist reasons) Accords official recognition to indigenous languages, instead of / alongside an international language of wider communication E.g. South Africa: English + 10 other languages are official languages Internationalism (economic reasons) The adoption or maintenance of an international language of wider communication in an official capacity Pragmatic goal of socioeconomic participation at an international level Could marginalise indigenous langs and their speakers because typically only the socially elite minority are competent in the use of international variety: the hegemonic variety ➢ SGEM in Singapore ➢ National University of Singapore PROSE- Promotion of Standard

English. To raise awareness of using SE in formal contexts, specifically to NUS community of students, faculty and staff (1999) ➢ Japanese elementary schools implemented compulsory Eng lessons for 5th and 6th graders (2010) Pidgin Auxiliary language created by people with no lang in common. - Rudimentary grammar - Lexifier comes from superstrate - Syntax from substrates Creoles Stable natural languages developed from pidgins. AKA nativised languages that speakers acquire as a mother tongue Lingua franca A lang that’s used for communicative purposes by speakers of different languages, for very specific purposes e.g. business / commerce / education Code switching - Changing back and forth between 2 languages or 2 varieties of the same language, esp in a single conversation - Used amongst multilinguals to enrich communication - Inter-sentential or intra-sentential Code mixing Similar to code switching, but it is a mixed language- grammaticalised form which emerges from code switching *usually, just use code switching unless it’s applicable Style switching Using different registers or varieties of the same language - Affective reasons [RELATIONAL] - Referential reasons [PROVIDING INFO] Language attrition Decline of proficiency in a lang by individuals

FLA- ‘First Language Attrition’ is the gradual decline in native lang proficiency among migrants. Speaker uses 2nd lang more frequently, which subjects 1st lang to influence of the 2nd lang, or deteriorate Language death When a lang has no native speakers, or is not taught and acquired as a mother tongue *The spread of the majority group lang into more domains diminishes the contexts in which minority languages are used. Language revival / revitalisation Recovers at least the spoken use of the language. Happens if speakers - Increase their prestige within dominant community - Incr wealth - Incr legitimate power in the perception of the dominant community - Have strong presence in education system - Can write down the language - Makes use of technology (David Crystal) ✓ historical justice (ethical) ✓ diversity (aesthetic) ✓ employability (utilitarian) Language shift / assimilation [monoglot ideology] A speech community of a lang shifts to speaking another lang (refer to P2SA examples) In terms of LPP, it manifests as policies that seek to ensure all members of a speech community have the ability to use the dominant language. Issues: ★ Often causes the needs of linguistic minorities to be ignored ★ Such as, official recognition for their native tongues Linguistic pluralism Accords official status to the languages of

[acknowledging & encouraging linguistic diversity] ** note there is difference between pluralism and vernacularisation. Pluralism is general & towards a variety of languages, whereas v. is more specialised to the country and its culture various ethnic groups in society, codifying them and teaching them in schools. Tends to be found in multi ethnic, multi cultural societies, e.g. Belgium (Dutch, French & German are all mother tongues) ✓ status planning ✓ corpus planning ✓ acquisition planning Linguistic purism Promotion of an ideal that exists in everyday written form. There’ is an ‘essence’ which is intrinsic to a language that must be protected and preserved. Intelligibility Being able to understand the meanings of what another speaker says, and respond in a way that their interactions have a successful outcome. Language ideology Ingrained, unquestioned beliefs about the way the world is, the way it should be, and the way it has to be with respect to language. Language standardization - like LPP 1. Formal standardization: language