ELL written text notes for TERMS

ELL P1SA WRITTEN TEXT (LINGUISTIC FEATURES) CONTACT 1. Personal pronouns establish the voice of the writer. ○ 1st person singular pronouns -> I, me ○ 2nd person singular / plural pronouns -> you ○ 1st person plural inclusive /exclusive pronouns -> we, us, ours X does not contribute to interpersonal contact, used objectively to sound more impersonal : 2nd person general pronouns, all 3rd person pronouns 2. Mood and sentence types address the reader directly, to ○ Interrogatives: projects a need for the reader to answer that question and force them to think of subject at hand ○ Imperatives: is a call to action for the reader to respond accordingly ○ Exclamatory highlights emotions (and often paired with imperatives) 3. Multimodality 4. Format features ○ Such as testimonials, quotes, contact details 5. Word choice (lexical terms) ○ Salient to context ○ Emotive / connotative POWER 1. Mood and sentence types ○ Declarative: writer makes a statement (either fact or opinion) - Bare VS modulated declaratives ○ Imperative: request, suggest, command or invite the reader to do something - Starts with a verb - Superior knowledge ○ Interrogatory: writer could have authority, or putting reader in position of authority, can also be used to create contact - Exceptions are expository and rhetorical questions ○ Exclamatory: writer expresses emotion

2. Mood and modality Modal verbs -> can, could, shall, should, will, would, must, may ○ Expresses probability / possibility / likelihood / obligation / necessity, ability, permission ○ Perceptions, opinions, and attitudes of the writer and speaker that shape understanding of message conveyed COMPLEXITY 1. Morphological complexity ○ Affixes ○ Nominalisation: verb or adjective -> noun 2. Phrasal complexity ● Nouns premodifying nouns: are non gradable and absolute -> particle physics ● Compound nouns - Endocentric: A + B = special kind of B -> North East Coast mackerel - Exocentric: A + B = metaphorical kind of B -> redhead, lionheart - Copulative: A + B = sum of A and B (2 things which contribute equally to the noun) -> sleepwalker - Appositional: A / B = A and B provide different descriptions for the same referent -> singer-songwriter ● Compound adjectives: when adjectives modify adjectives ● Structural complexity 3. Clausal complexity ● Subordination - Illustrates contrast or cause and effect ● Complementizer ● Noun modification (pre or post modification) 4. Themes & Rhemes ● Marked themes are a form of emphasis COHESION

1. Grammatical cohesion ● Reference - Anaphoric reference (something that has alr been mentioned and named previously) - Cataphoric reference (given an identity aft it has been mentioned -> when she left, my friend passed me her cat) - Co-reference [exophoric] ● Ellipsis - Creates cohesion when used relatively consistently throughout text - E.g. subheadings / headings ● Substitution - Words that substitue for other words found in text -> Would you do well in E LL? I hope so. - Avoids repetition and encourages economy of words - Used in more casual contexts ● Conjunction - Coordinating conjunctions: F A N B O Y S *less complex - Subordinating conjunctions: that, whether, if, before, after, until, since, becau se, once, so, although *more complex, and shows how ideas are linked logically within a text - Linking clauses (a v long statement) - Linking phrases (linking two or more stuff as long as they are in the same category) -> Kate MIddleton and Prince William 2. Lexical cohesion ● Direct repetition ● Semantic field: Words from same specific area of experience and knowledge -> school: class, exams, homework ● Synonyms / near synonyms ● Hyponyms: word encompassing others in meaning -> educators: lecturers, tutors, teachers ● Meronyms: the skin is a meronym of onions - Different from METOnyms, which is a figure of speech -> White House rep the government. ● Antonyms: opposites ● Specific-general reference ● Ordered series -> days of the week, numbers

IMPLIED MEANING 1. Connotations 2. Figurative language ● Simile ● Metaphor ● Metonymy - Containment - Instrumentation - Synecdoche - Producer for product - Institution for people responsible - Place for institution ● Idiom ● Irony 3. Entailment : if B must be true for A to be true, A entails B. 4. Implicature : what is suggested in an utterance, but not expressed or strictly implied or entailed (i.e. reading between the lines!) ● Conventional ● Conversational - Maxim of Quality: make statements that can be backed by evidence - Quantity: amount of info should not exceed required - Relevance: /relation. Be relevant - Manner: avoid ambiguity, be brief, be orderly Response to maxims Meaning Violate Hearer does not know speaker is lying Opt out Speaker directly refuses to continue with topic Conflict or clash of maxims Flout Hearer knows speaker is lying, speaker has blatantly defied the maxim 5. Presupposition : the presupposition is true whether the statement is true or false Triggers for presupposition:

- Definite article (the) - Preposition phrase - Comparative adjective (e.g. fairer, quieter) - Imperative (an action word- mind the gap) - Change of state verb (e.g. began) - Adverb FORMALITY NO YES Colloquialism Complex language Contractions Lexical density - nominalisation Slang Jargon / high specialized language Profanities Precise information e.g. numbers Objective Cohesion Hedging IDEATIONAL MEANING Verb Material Actor Goal Range Beneficiary Agent Mental Experiencer Experience

Verbal Sayer Receiver Target Verbiage Relational Token Value SPEECH ACT THEORY 1. Locutionary acts 2. Illocutionary acts 3. Perlocutionary acts