Geography Y1 (Y2 for Nanyang [nanyang 2024 EOY syllabus])

Deforestationisthepurposefulclearingofforestbyhumansleadingtothedecreaseofforestareasintheworld. Forestsareimportantbecausethey:1. Managequantityandqualityofwatersupply2. Theyreplenishatmosphericoxygenandremovecarbondioxidefromtheatmosphere3. Theymaintainnutrientsinthesoil4. Theyareahabitatforfloraandfauna5. Theyareahabitforpeople6. Theyprovideasourceforusefulmaterialsliketimbreandoilpalm ThecausesofDeforestationare:1. Agriculture2. Logging3. Constructionofinfrastructure4. Urbanisation5. Climatechange Theimpactsofdeforestationsare:1. Environmentalimpact:a. Lossofbiodiversityb. Lossofwatercatchmentareasc. Enhancedgreenhouseeectd. Increasedriskofflooding,soilerosion,andsedimentation2. Economicimpact:a. Depletionofnaturalresources3. Socialimpact:a. Lossofhabitatsofindigenouspeople Impacts:forestfiresandhaze- Deforestation,thelarge-scaledeforestation,primarilyforpalmoilplantations,timberextractions,andotheragriculturalactivities,isamajorcauseofforestfires.Forestsareoftenclearedbycuttingandburningvegetation,whichcanleadtouncontrolledfiresthatcaneasilyspreadtosurroundingareas,especiallyduringthedryseason.SinceKalimantanhasextensivepeatlands,whicharecarbon-richandhighlyflammablewhendrainedanddriedforagriculture,firesinpeatlandsareverydiculttoextinguish

andcansmoulderundergroundforlongperiods,releasinglargeamountsofsmokeandcarbondioxide.- Thesefirescanleadtoincreasedhazelevels.Theairqualityindex(AQI)andlevelsofparticulatematter(PM2.5)oftenreachhazardouslevelsduringfireseasons.In2015,PM2.5levelsinsomeareasofKalimantanexceeded1000microgramspercubicmetre,farabovetheworldhealthorganisation’sguidelineof25microgramspercubicmetrefora24-hourperiod.Prolongedexposuretohazecanleadtoincreasedhospitaladmissionsandprematuredeaths.Vulnerablepopulations,suchaschildren,theelderly,andthosewithpre-existinghealthconditions,areatgreaterrisk.- TheIndonesiangovernmenthasimplementedvariouspoliciestoreducedeforestationandpreventfires,includingamoratoriumonnewpalmoilplantationsandeortstorestoredegradedpeatlands. Impact:soilerosion,sedimentation,andflooding- SoilErosionleadstothelossofthetopsoil,whichisthemostfertilelayer.Thisreducessoilfertilityandagriculturalproductivity.- Landslidesalsooccurinhillyormountainousareas,severeerosioncanleadtolandslides,whicharehazardoustohumansettlementsandinfrastructure.DeforestedareasinKalimantancanexperiencesoilerosionratesofupto90tonsperhectareperyear.- InPeatlandareas,deforestationcanleadtothedegradationofpeat,cursingsubsidenceandfurthererosion.Peatlands,whendrainedanddeforested,canerodeatarateofupto20cmperyear.- Sedimentationcausesriverstosiltup,reducingtheircapacitytocarrywater.Thiscanleadtomorefrequentandsevereflooding.- Highlevelsofsedimentsinwaterbodiesdegradewaterquality,aectingaquaticlifeandmakingthewaterunsuitableforhumanconsumptionandotheruses.Forexample,thebarrioriver,oneofthemajorriversinKalimantan,hasseensedimentationratesincreasebymorethanthreefoldoverthepastfewdecades.- Inheavilydeforestedwatersheds,sedimentyieldscanreachover500tonspersquarekilometreperyear,whichismuchhigherthaninundisturbedforestedwatersheds.- Significantdamagetohomes,roads,andotherinfrastructure.Inruralareas,agriculturallandsareparticularlyvulnerable,leadingtocroplossesandfoodinsecurity.- Frequentandseverefloodingleadstothedisplacementofcommunities,especiallythoselivinginlow-lyingorriverineareas.- Healthriskslikeoutbreaksofwaterbornediseasesoccur,ascontaminatedwatersourcesandpoorsanitationconditionsarecommonfloodedareas.

- Thefrequencyandintensityoffloodshaveincreasedoverthepastfewdecades,correlatingwithincreaseddeforestationrates.Forexample,in2021,severefloodinginsouthKalimantanaectedover112,000peopleandsubmergedthousandsofhomes.- The2021floodscauseddamagesamountingtooverUSD100millioninSouthKalimantanalone. Impact:lossofbiodiversity- Kalimantanishometoover15,000plantspecies,morethan600birdspecies,over200mammalspecies,andthousandsofinsectspecies,manyofwhichareendemictotheregion.Deforestationleadstothefragmentationofhabitats,isolatingpopulationsofspeciesandreducinggeneticdiversity,whichiscriticalforspeciessurvival.- OneofthemostcriticallyendangeredspeciesinKalimantan,theBorneanorangutanhasseenitspopulationdeclinebyover50%inthepast60years.TheinternationalUnionforConservationofNature(IUCN)estimatesthattherearefewerthan105,000Borneanorangutansleftinthewild.- Severalprotectedareashavebeenestablishedforconservationeorts,includingnationalparkslikeTanjungPutingandBetunKerihun,whicharecrucialforconservingbiodiversity. Impact:displacementofindigenouspeople- TheDayakpeopleareindigenousinhabitantsofBorneo,includingkalimantan.Theypractiseaformofshiftingcultivationandrelyontheforestforhunting,gatheringandmedicinalplants.Manyindigenouscommunitieshavecustomarylandrights,buttheserightsareoftennotformallyrecognisedbytheIndonesiangovernment,leadingtoconflictswhenlandisallocatedforindustrialuse.- LandconflictsrelatedtopalmoilplantationsalonehaveaectedthousandsofindigenousfamiliesacrossIndonesia,includingkalimantan.Forcedevictionsoftheindigenouspeoplehappentomakewayforindustrialactivities.Thesedisplacedpeopleendupinurbanareas,facingchallengessuchasunemployment,discrimination,andlossofculturalidentity.- TheNGOandadvocacygroupscontinuetosupportindigenouscommunitiesinthefightforlandrights,providinglegalassistance,raisingawareness,andcampaigningforpolicychanges. CloudFormationsteps1. Heatcauseswatertoevaporateintowatervapour

2. Warmairwithwatervapourrises3. Airiscooledrapidlywhenitrisesastemperaturedecreaseswithaltitude4. Asairrises,temperaturefallsandrelativehumi5. rises6. Whenrelativehumidityreaches100%athighaltitude,airissaturatedandexcesswatervapourchangesbacktowaterthroughcondensation.7. Waterdropletscondenseondustparticleswhichactascondensationnuclei.Tinywaterdropletsformaroundthenuclei.8. Waterdropletscollidewitheachotherandmergeintolargewaterdroplets9. Thisformclouds Describingtemperaturebyusingthemeanofthetemperature- Hightemperatureismorethan20degrees.- Lowtemperatureislessthan10degreesDescribingtemperatureconsistencybyusingtemperaturerange,maximumminusminimumoftemperature- Smallrangeislessthan10degrees- Largerangeismorethan15degrees- Describeifitsishotorcoldthroughouttheyear- Describeifitsseasonal(isthemiddlefinger)loruniformtemperature- Ifit'saflatline,itisclosetotheequatorandhaseventemperatureallyeararound.- Ifthere'salargediporbump,thereisdefinitewinterandsummerseasonDescribingprecipitationusingtotalannualrainfall- Morethan1500mmtotalannualrainfallishighorverywet- Lessthan250mmtotalannualrainfallisloworverydry- Distinctwetordryperiodisnotwelldistributed,notdistinctiswelldistributed tropicsstu1. Heighttemperature(27to28degreescelsius)2. highrainfall(morethan2500mm)3. highhumidity(80%-90%) relativehumidityisthepercentageoftheactualamountofwatervapouroverthemaximumamountofwatervapour.Maxwatervapouris100%saturationwherenomoreevaporationtakesplace.Astemperatureincreases,relativehumiditydecreases.

Weatheristhecurrenttemperatureofaparticulartime(shortterm),climateisanaveragetemperatureofmorethan30years(longterm) Loweraltitudehashighergravity,higherairdensityandairmoleculesaremorecondensedandsolarradiationabsorbedishigher=itiscolderhighaltitudehaslowergravity,lowerairdensityandairmoleculesarelesscondensedandsolarradiationabsorbedislower=itishotter tropics:- 90degreeangleofconcentratedsolarradiation,hencehighertemperaturenottropics:- acuteangleofconcentratedsolarradiation,hencelowertemperature Convectionalrain:1. Groundheatsupduringtheday,airaboveitbecomeswarmerthanitssurroundingandrises.Thecapacitytoholdwatervapouralsoincreases.2. Thewarmairrises,coolsgraduallyandcannolongerholdasmuchwatervapour.Relativehumidityoftheparcelofairincreases.Whenrelativehumidityreaches100%atacertainaltitude,theairwillcondenseoncondensationnucleiatdewpointtemperature.3. Tinywaterdropletscondensearoundthedustparticlesintheair.Thedustparticlesactascondensationnuclei.Tinywaterdropletsformaroundthenuclei.Thewaterdropletscollidewitheachotherandmergeintolargerwaterdroplets4. Heavywaterdropletsfalltothegroundasrain. Reliefrain:1.