RI Philosophy Notes for Society and Philosophy

Javier Ng with Fabian Ong3C/6 Logic Validity- If all premises are true, the conclusion is also true- OR The conclusion necessarily follows from the premises.- OR The premises necessarily lead to the conclusionSoundness- A sound argument is a valid argument with all truepremises. 1. Argument Forms Modus PonensP1: If p, then q.P2: pC: q WRONG: Affirming the ConsequentP1: If p, then qP2: qC: p Modus TollensP1: If p, then q.P2: Not q.C: Not p. WRONG: Denying the AntecedentP1: If p, then qP2: Not pC: Not q Hypothetical syllogismP1: If p, then q.P2: If q, then r.C: If p, then r. Disjunctive syllogismP1: Either p or q.P2: Not p.C: q. DilemmaP1: Either p or q.P2: If p, then r.P3: If q, then s.C: Either r or s.

Javier Ng with Fabian Ong3C/6 2. Counter-Arguments Original argument:P: X.IP: If X then YC: Y. Challenge explicit premise‘It is not the case that premise X of OA’.P1: a.C: Not X. Challenging implicit premise‘It is not the case that implicit premise (If X, then Y) of OA.’P1: a.C: Not (if X, then Y) Challenging validity‘It does not follow from premise X of OA that conclusionY of OA.’P1: a.C: It does not follow from X that Y. Counterarguments CANNOT challenge the conclusion ofOA 3. Rhetoric Rhetoric serves tomake an argumentative text or speechmore persuasive, withoutaffecting the soundness of the reasons given.- Not premises- Not conclusionsWhen extracting arguments, remove all rhetoric and do not include them in your P-C form Part 1 - Preambles, Asides and Repetition: DeleteALL of themPreamblesfound (sometimes) at thestart of an argumentativetext, before the argument begins. It isthe author's way of introducing the argument, showing its relevance, setting up the context, hookingthe reader etc. They can be quotes, definitions, background information and more.

Javier Ng with Fabian Ong3C/6 Asidespoints that the author makes that arerelated to theargument, but is neither the conclusionnor a premise.- e.g. "By the way...". Repetitionsrepeated sentences, and can be seen as a stylistic rhetorical element. Repetitions are used for clarityand emphasis. Each premise and conclusion should onlyappear oncewhen extracting anargument into P-C form. Part 2 - Assurances, Hedges, Discounts: Delete ALLAssuranceswords or phrases thatindicate the author is veryconfidentof the claims he is making.- e.g. surely, certainly, of course, undeniably Hedgeswords or phrases thatindicate the author is not 100%confidentwith the claims he is making.- e.g. I think that, in my opinion, arguably. Discountsfacts or possibilities that challenge the author'sconclusion or premises, to make theauthor sound more trustworthy- Discountindicators- e.g. although, while it may be the case that, despite, while it may be true that... Part 3 - Rhetorical Questions, Commands, Metaphors:MUST convertRhetorical Questionsarequestions whose answers aresupposedto be veryobvious; the author is not really askinga question, he is trying to make a point. To uncover the implicit statement, just answer th