NUSH CM1131, CM2131 and CM3131 Notes

CM1131, CM2131, CM3131 Notes Full Foundations in Chemistry I - III Series This is a compilation of questions and notes given in the Foundations in Chemistry Courses. Made by LQ, Joel and edited by many wonderful people (yey ty all) Links of All LQ Notes: LQ Notes Links Document Module Topic Page Intro Author’s Note and Introduction 3 CM1131 Topic 1: The Particulate Nature of Matter 5 Topic 2: Elements and the Periodic Table 8 Topic 3: Elements, Compounds and Mixtures 12 Topic 4: Separation and Purification of Substances 17 Topic 5: Atomic Structure 28 Topic 6: Structure and Bonding (Ionic) 37 Topic 7: Structure and Bonding (Simple Molecular) 43 Topic 8: Acids and Bases (I) 46 Topic 9: Solubility Rules 50 CM2131 Topic 10: Acids and Bases (II) 52 Topic 11: The Mole Concept 62 Topic 12: Chemical Calculations 70 Topic 13: Concentration of Solutions 76 Topic 14: Volumetric Analysis (Titration) 80 Topic 15: Salt Preparation 87 Topic 16: Structure and Bonding (Metallic) 94 Topic 17: Structure and Bonding (Giant Covalent) 101 Topic 18: Redox Reactions 106 ~ Page 1 of 293 ~

Topic 19: Reactivity Series of Metals 119 Topic 20: Qualitative Analysis (QA) 127 Topic 21: Speed of Reaction 139 CM3131 Topic 22: Chemical Bonding 153 Topic 23: Lewis Structure 159 Topic 24: Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory 171 Topic 25: Formulae and Representations of Organic Compounds 182 Topic 26: Intermolecular Forces of Attraction (IMF) 190 Topic 27: Hydrocarbons 199 Topic 28: Air and Atmosphere 232 Topic 29: Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen 233 Topic 30: Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen 242 Topic 31: Chemical Energetics 255 Topic 32: Electrolysis 260 Topic 33: Extraction of Metals and Rust Prevention 269 Appendix Pause and Ponder Solutions 275 Sources and Credits 288 Thank You ! 293 ~ Page 2 of 293 ~

Author’s Note and Introduction These notes cover all important topics in CM1131 and CM2131. CM3131 notes are in progress. If you find any mistake, please drop LQ (or Joel, maybe) a note anywhere or just suggest it in this document (everyone has commenting rights). If a sentence has the tag [verify] , it means that it could be inaccurate. If you know how to improve on it, please do help out, any help is appreciated :D Everything that says “FYI”, including all sections labelled as “Extension”, are purely for additional reading, and is not tested (at that level). For Pause and Ponder , the answers can be found at the end of the notes, here. Please DO NOT share these notes outside of NUS High, as NUSH Lesson Materials are used as a reference. ~ Page 3 of 293 ~

CM1131 Foundations in Chemistry I ~ Page 4 of 293 ~

Topic 1: The Particulate Nature of Matter 1.1 The Kinetic Particle Theory The Kinetic Particle Theory says that all matter is made of particles. Solid Liquid Gas Diagram Arrangement Orderly, Closely packed Disorderly, Less closely packed Disorderly, Very far apart Attractive Forces Strong Less strong Very weak K.E. of particles Very low Low Very high Movement of particles Vibrate about fixed positions Able to slide over one another Moving about randomly at high speeds Table 1.1.1 - Properties of Matter as described by Kinetic Particle Theory Some limitations of the Kinetic Particle Theory includes: The kinetic theory model assumes that particles collide and bounce off each other. But, in reality, particles often do not simply bounce off each other because they have forces of attraction between them . This affects properties such as melting point. 1.2 Changes of State in Matter Solid Liquid Gas Solid Freezing Deposition Liquid Melting Condensation Gas Sublimation Evaporation/Boiling Table 1.2.1 - The Processes involved in Changes of State ~ Page 5 of 293 ~

1.3 Evaporation vs Boiling Evaporation Boiling Can occur at temperatures below boiling point Only occurs at boiling point Occurs only at the surface of the liquid Occurs throughout the liquid Slower Faster Produces a cooling effect because heat energy is absorbed from the surrounding Temperature remains constant (for pure substances) Table 1.3.1 - Evaporation vs Boiling 1.4 Relative Atomic/Molecular Mass The symbol of relative atomic mass is A r . To find A r , we look up the element on the periodic table to see its relative atomic mass. The symbol of relative molecular mass is M r . To calculate M r , we sum up the A r of all the atoms in the molecule. E.g. H 2 O (Water) has a relative atomic mass of 2 × 1.008 + 16.00 = 18.02 (2 dp). Do take note that A r and M r have no units. As the name suggests, they are relative to a preset value (Specifically, the mass of one 1 12 ×carbon-12 molecule). 1.5 Heating Curve This is what a regular heating curve looks like: ~ Page 6 of 293 ~

Graph 1.5.1 - Regular Heating Curve Refer to Graph 1.5.1 above. AB is the substance as a solid . BC is the substance melting and is composed of a mix of solid and liquid. CD is the substance as a liquid . DE is the substance boiling and is composed of a mix of liquid and gas. EF is the substance as a gas . ~ Page 7 of 293 ~

Topic 2: Elements and the Periodic Table 2.1 Elements An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical methods. 2.1.1 The Periodic Table The Periodic Table of Elements is a table that places the elements based on their atomic number, electron configurations and chemical properties. Figure 2.1.1.1 - The Periodic Table The rows of the Periodic Table are called periods . The columns are called groups . 2.1.2 Comparison of Properties of Metals and Non-metals Metals Non-Metals Appearance Shiny Dull Physical State at Room Temperature Solids (Except Usually ~ Page 8 of 293 ~

Mercury) liquids/gases Density High Low Malleability (Can be hammered into diff. shapes without breaking) Malleable Brittle when solid Ductility (Can be drawn or pulled into wires) Ductile Non-ductile Sonorosity (Makes a ringing sound when struck) Sonorous Non-sonorous Conductivity Good conductors of heat and electricity Poor conductors of heat and electricity (Except Carbon in the form of Graphite) Table 2.1.2.1 - Properties of Metals vs Non-metals 2.1.3 Metalloids Metalloids, or semi-metals, refer to the elements that lie on a diagonal line as shown below. They are called so because they exhibit properties intermediate between metals and non-metals. The metalloids are: Boron, Silicon, Germanium, Arsenic, Antimony, and Tellurium. This is also colloquially referred to as “the staircase”. Figure 2.1.3.1 - Metalloids ~ Page 9 of 293 ~

2.1.4 Groups in the Periodic Table We need to memorise 4 groups, 1, 2, 17 and 18. Group 1 2 17 18 Name Alkali Metals Alka