Essay Notes for O Level Elective Geography

🌎EssayNotes(OLevelElectiveGeography)🌱Withexamples, ofcourse! ● Clickthetopiclinksbelowtoopeneachrespectivechapterthatcanbetestedforessay● ThissetofnotescanbeusedtostudyforBOTHtheessayandnormalquestions(notethatsomesuperfluousdetailsareomitted)● Currentlyexampleswith‘?’ implyinsufficientstatisticsinthetextbook TestableClimateTopics:● 1.2VariationsinAirTemperature● 2.1NaturalVariabilityofClimate● 2.2AnthropogenicFactorsContributingtoClimateChange● 2.3ImpactofClimateChangeonNaturalSystems● 2.4ImpactofClimateChangeonHumanSystems● 3.2VariationsofClimateRisksacrossPlaces● 3.3EffectivenessofMitigationStrategiesinBuildingCommunityResiliencetoClimateChange● 3.4EffectivenessofAdaptationStrategiesinBuildingCommunityResiliencetoClimateChange TestableTourismTopics:● 1.2ReasonsthatLedtotheGrowthofTourism● 2.1TrendsinTourism● 2.2EconomicImpactsofTourism● 2.3SocialImpactsofTourism● 2.4EnvironmentImpactsofTourism● 3.2EffectivenessofStakeholdersinInfluencingSustainableTourismDevelopment● 3.3EffectivenessofStakeholdersinInfluencingSustainableTourismDevelopment EssayFormatRecap: 1. Introa. Scope:“Whilestrategieslike(factor1)areeffective,(factor2)isalsoeffective/anotherfactorthat…”2. Bodyx2a. Factorb. Explanation(4bulletpoints)c. Example(2bulletpoints,musthavelocation/statistic)d. Linkfactortocommoncriteriainqn(e.g.effectiveness)3. Conclusiona. Stand (CC0)NoRightsReserved. Feel freetodistribute.CollatedbyArish.PMforanychangesorrequesttocontribute.Iappreciateanyhelp.<3

b. Stateweighingcriteria(Scale,long/shortterm,cause&effect,interdependent,cost-effective,solution)c. Reasons(1formainfactor1foralternatefactor,uselogic,buildon‘why’) 1.Climate 1.2VariationsinAirTemperature Factor Explanation(~4points) Example(~2points) Mostlikelyfactorsbasedongeographicallocation,notbasedontime,willbetestedforessay(canusescale) Airtemperaturevariesduetodifferencesin latitude ● temperatureslowerathigherlatitudes● duetoEarth’ssphericalshape→angleatwhichsunraysstrikeEarth’ssurface(solarangle)varies@differentparts● higherlatitude→smallersolarangle→lessdirectsolarradiation→spreadoveralargearea→lessconcentrated→↓temp ● Beijing,Cina(40°N)temperaturesaround12°C● Singapore(1°N)temperaturesaround29°C Airtemperaturevariesduetodifferencesin altitude ● @localscale→temperatureslowerathigheraltitude● @higherattitude→airlessdense● becauseairpressureislowerasgravitypullairmoleculesdown● fewerairmolecules→airhaslowerabilitytoabsorbandradiateheat→lowertemperatures AverageTemp● GentingHighlands(1700mabovesealevel)12°C● Surroundingareasatsealevelisabout32°C Clickheretogobacktotop

Airtemperatureatspecificsitesareinfluencedby typeofsurface ● darksurfaces→absorbmoresolarradiation→radiatemoreheat→↑temp● lightcolouredsurfaces→reflectmoresolarradiation→radiatelessheat→↓temp● urbanareashavehighertemp○ largeareasofdarksurfaces(roads)○ glass-coveredskyscrapers(reflectsunlighttogroundsurface) ● NightTimeatSingapore’sCentralBusinessDistrictis2°Cwarmerthan● areanearMacritchieReservoir(withverydensevegetation) Airtemperatureatspecificsitesareinfluencedby distancefromsea ● Coastalarea→maritimeeffect(coolersummer, warmerwinter)→lowerATR● InlandAreas→continentaleffect(warmersummer, coolerwinter)→higherATR● seaheatsupandcoolsdownslowerthanland○ duringwinter→seaiswarmerthanland→warmingairalongcoastalareas○ duringsummer→seacoolerthanland→coolsairalongcoastalareas● inlandareasdoXexperiencemoderatinginfluenceofsea ● Anchorage,Alaska,USA(coastalcity)→lowerATRof23°C● Fairbanks,Alaska,USA(inlandcity)→higherATRof40°C 2.1NaturalVariabilityofClimateNot included: howEarth’sclimatechangedover geological time, howEarth’sclimatezoneschanged Factor Explanation(4pointsonly) Example(2pointsonly) Climatevariabilityoccursdueto Orbit● Earth’sorbitstretchedfromcirculartoellipticalshapeandbackagain ● (givenexplanationissufficient,accordingtoMrChan) Clickheretogobacktotop

changesinEarth’sorbit&angleoftilt ● Every100kyears● Whenmostelliptic→Earthwilltravelinamoreovalshape→moreradiationreachesEarthatclosestapproachandlessatfarthestdepartureTilt● Earth’saxisvariesbackandforthbetween21.5°and24.5°● Every41kyears● Whentilt↓→thehemispheresleanfurtheraway→warmerwinters&coolersummers● Allowsbuildingoflargeicesheetsinhigherlatitudes→coolingEarth Climatevariabilityoccursdueto occurrencesofsunspots ● Highersunspotactivity→higheramountsofsolarradiation● Sunspothas↓temp→areassurroundingitradiatemoreenergy→↑solarradiationemitted→↑temperaturesonEarths● Periodsofmaximumsunspotactivitycorrespondtoperiodsofhighannualsurfacetemperatures ● (givenexplanationissufficient,accordingtoMrChan) Climatevariabilityoccursdueto occurrencesoflarge-scalevolcaniceruptions ● Volcaniceruption→releaselargevolumesofsulfur-basedparticles,dust&ash● Spreadaroundloweratmosphere● Absorb&reflectssolarenergybackintospace● Temporarilyoffsetsgreenhouseeffect→lowertemperature(untilparticlesgrowlarge7fall) ● EruptionofMountPinatubo, 1991,droppedaverageglobaltemperaturesofabout0.6°Cover15monthsaftereruption 2.2AnthropogenicFactorsContributingtoClimateChange Clickheretogobacktotop

Questions: Wouldtheytest changinglanduseseparately Factor Explanation(4pointsonly) Example(2pointsonly) Preamble● GreenhouseEffect:Naturalprocesswheresomelongwaveradiationisabsorbedbygreenhousegasesandre-emittedintheatmosphere,keepingtheEarthwarm.● EnhancedGreenhouseEffect:With↑anthropogenicactivities→moregreenhousegasesinatmosphere→morelongwaveradiationabsorbed→moreheatre-emitted&lessheatescapes BurningFossilFuels ● Fossilfuelshavehighcarboncontent● Burningoffossilfuelssuchascoal,oilandnaturalgasproduceslargeamountsofCO2andotherGHGs→enhancedgreenhouseeffect● Fossilfuelsareburnedtocreateenergyforhumanactivities ● Since1880s, useoffossilfuelsincreasedsteeplytomorethan35billiontonnesofCO2emissionsperyear Changinglandusedueto Deforestation ● Fossilfuelsareburntforagriculture,industriesandurbanisation→enhancedgreenhouseeffect● Deforestation:largescaledeforestationcarriedoutforresourcesandland→↑CO2levelsaslesstreescanabsorbCO2viaphotosynthesisandclearingtreesexposesoiltosunlight,↑soiltempandrateofcarbonoxidation ● Globallytropicdeforestationcontributesto20%ofannualgreenhousegasemissions Changinglandusedueto Agriculture ● Agriculture:Aspopulationgrow→morespaceneededtomeetrisingdemandforfood● Contributesto30%ofglobalGHGemissionsdueto○ burningoffossilfuelsduetofarmmachinery ● Globallydecompositionisrapidinpaddyricefieldsduetothehighamountofmoistureinthesoil→contributesto5%to20%ofmethaneemissions Clickheretogobacktotop

○ livestockrearingandnaturaldecompositionreleasesmethane Changinglandusedueto Industries ● Industries:Fossilfuelsburnttogenerateenergytorunmachineryandfactoryprocesses ● Globallyitisestimatedthatindustriescontributeto43%ofgreenhousegasesannually Changinglandusedueto Urbanisation ● Urbanisation:Fossilfuelsburnttopowerhighconcentrationofvehiclesandhouseholdactivities ● Globallycitiesconsumeabout78%ofworld’senergyandcontributesignificantlytotheemissionofgreenhousegases 2.3ImpactofClimateChangeonNaturalSystems Factor Explanation(4pointsonly) Example(2pointsonly) ImpactofClimateChangeonNaturalSystemsdueto ● IncreaseinAtmosphericandOceanSurfaceTemperatures● ChangestoOceanCirculations● ChangesinPrecipitationonLand ● ↑Atmospheric&OceanSurfaceTemperatures:Earth’stemphasbeenincreasingsinceIndustrialRevolution● ChangestoOceanCirculations:○ GlobalOceanCirculation: warmsurfacewatermovespolewardsduetowind→cools,denser&sinks→formcoolsubsurfaceflows→eventuallyrisesbacktowardssurface○ CCslowsdownglobaloceancirculation→wateratsurfacegains ● Temperaturehassteadilyincreasedfrom-0.05°Cto0.55°Csince1964to1968(industrialrevolution)● OceanCurrentintheAtlanticOceanslowedbyabout15%● ThePoles, partsofSoutheastAsiaandCentralAfricafaceexcessiverainfall● SouthwestUSAandpartsoftheSahelregioninAfricafacemoredroughts Clickheretogobacktotop

heat→lessdense→sinkingofwaterreduced● ChangestoPrecipitationonLand:wetregionsexpectedtogetwetter, dryregionsdrier○ warmerair→↑watervapour(becausewarmeraircanholdmorewatervapour)→increasedevaporation→increasedexcessiverainfal