[SAJC] Conflict and Cooperation (1945-2000) Final (2024)

Saint Andrew’s Junior College (2024) 9174/01 H2 History Paper 1 Theme III: Conflict and Cooperation (1945-2000) 1 Conflict and Cooperation (1945-2000) Topic 1: Indo-Pakistani Conflict (1945-1972) SAJC History Unit, 2024 Learning Outcomes (from the Examination Syllabus) 4 Essential Questions for this topic: 4 Guiding Questions for this topic: 4 1. Introduction 5 1.1 Understanding the Indo-Pakistani conflict over Kashmir 6 2. Origins of the Indo-Pakistani Conflict over Kashmir 7 2.1 Context: The Land of Kashmir 7 2.2 Decolonisation (The Partition of India) 8 2.3 Security (Strategic Geographical Location) 12 2.4 Economic Interests (Control over resources) 13 2.5 Ethno-Religious Significance of Kashmir 14 2.6 Competing Nationalisms and Statehood 15 3. Outbreak of the Conflict 17 3.1 Pakistan’s war by proxy 17 3.2 The Accession of Kashmir to India 17

Saint Andrew’s Junior College (2024) 9174/01 H2 History Paper 1 Theme III: Conflict and Cooperation (1945-2000) 2 4. Protracted Regional Conflict: the Indo-Pakistani Wars 20 4.1 The First Indo-Pakistani War/First Kashmir War (1947-48) 20 4.1.1 How the War began 20 4.1.2 Consequences 21 4.2 The Second Indo-Pakistani War/Second Kashmir War (1965) 21 4.2.1 How the War began 21 4.2.2 Consequences 22 4.3 The Third Indo-Pakistani War/Bangladesh Liberation War (1965) 23 4.3.1 How the War began 23 4.3.2 Consequences 24 5. The Unending conflict over Kashmir 27 5.1 A Clash of Competing Nationalisms 27 5.1.1 Indian Nationalism 28 5.1.2 Pakistani Nationalism 28 5.1.3 Kashmiri Nationalism 29 6. Contrasting Attitudes towards the Kashmir Issue 29 6.1 India’s Attitudes/Policies 30 6.2 Pakistan’s Attitudes/Policies 30 7. Role of the Cold War and Superpowers 31 7.1 Minimal global superpower involvement during the 1st IPC 32 7.2 The Cold War in South Asia by 1965 32 7.3 The 1971 Indo-Pakistani Conflict and Superpower involvement 32

Saint Andrew’s Junior College (2024) 9174/01 H2 History Paper 1 Theme III: Conflict and Cooperation (1945-2000) 3 8. Role of the United Nations 33 8.1 Challenges in Mediation and establishment of UNMOGIP during 1st IPC 33 8.2 Adoption of Resolution 210 and role of U Thant during 2nd IPC 35 8.3 Humanitarian efforts during the 3rd IPC 36 9. The Rise of Religious Fundamentalism in South Asia 38 9.1 Hindu Fundamentalism 38 9.2 Islamic Fundamentalism 39 10. Impact on Domestic Politics 40 11. Effectiveness of Conflict Management (Diplomacy) 40 11.1 Diplomatic Efforts during the 1st IPC 40 11.2 Diplomatic Efforts during the 2nd IPC 41 11.2.1 Role of United States 42 11.2.2 Soviet Union’s strategic interests 42 11.2.3 Limitation of the Tashkent Agreement 43 11.3 Diplomatic Efforts during the 3rd IPC 43 11.3.1 Global Alliances and Strategic Interests 44 11.3.2 United Nations and the Diplomatic Showdown 44 12. Effectiveness of Conflict Management (Peacekeeping) 46 13. Threat of a Regional Nuclear Holocaust 47

Saint Andrew’s Junior College (2024) 9174/01 H2 History Paper 1 Theme III: Conflict and Cooperation (1945-2000) 4 Learning Outcomes (from the Examination Syllabus) Students are able to: ● evaluate causes of conflicts ● evaluate the roles of different actors in the development of conflicts over time ● evaluate the effectiveness of conflict management Essential Questions for this topic: • Why did conflicts occur and how did they affect the international order? • Why do countries/ethnic groups engage in war and conflict with one another? • Why do wars and conflicts usually remain protracted and difficult to resolve? • What are the consequences of war and conflict for affected countries and the region at large? • How effective were the attempts to manage these conflicts? Guiding Questions for this topic: • What were the primary causes of the conflicts between India and Pakistan after the Second World War? • How did the partition of British India in 1947 influence the initial conflicts between India and Pakistan? • What roles did regional powers, such as China and the former Soviet Union, play in the Indo-Pakistani conflicts? • What instigated the wars between India and Pakistan in 1947-1948, 1965, and 1971? How did each war reshape the geopolitical landscape of South Asia? • How did the Indo -Pakistani conflicts affect glo bal Cold War dynamics, particularly the involvement of the United States and the Soviet Union? • What steps did the United Nations take to mediate the Indo-Pakistani conflicts, and how effective were these interventions? • What were the socio -political and eco nomic impacts of the Indo -Pakistani conflicts on both nations involved?

Saint Andrew’s Junior College (2024) 9174/01 H2 History Paper 1 Theme III: Conflict and Cooperation (1945-2000) 5 • How did the internal political dynamics within India and Pakistan either escalate or de-escalate the conflicts? • In what ways did the Kashmir issue contribute to the sustained tensions and conflicts between India and Pakistan? • What role did international diplomatic efforts play in the resolution or escalation of the Indo-Pakistani conflicts over the decades? • How have cultural and religious differences been exploited or mitigated by political actors on both sides to further their interests in the Indo -Pakistani conflicts? • What impact did the conflict have on regional stability in South Asia, particularly concerning smaller neighboring countries? • What lessons can be learned from the Indo -Pakistani conflicts about international conflict resolution and peacebuilding? 1. Introduction • The Indo-Pakistani conflict largely consists of an inter-state struggle between India and Pakistan. It is important to note that at the point in 1947, Kashmir’s accession was deemed as vital to the political survival of both India and Pakistan, both newly -formed states. As the conflict evolved, other reasons emerged to the forefront (does not mean they were new) which further protracted the struggle for Kashmir. • The protraction of the IP conflict is due to a milieu of reasons and circumstances including the clash in nationalism, the rise of religious fundamentalism*, contrasting foreign policy attitudes, the rise of Kashmiri nationalism, Superpower involvement and nuclearisation. • Out of these, nationalism is the most important reason that explains the enduring struggle and it is important to note that the clash in opposing nationalisms (secular nationalism on the part of India vs. religious nationalism on the part of Pakistan) PRECEDED independence of the two states in 1947.

Saint Andrew’s Junior College (2024) 9174/01 H2 History Paper 1 Theme III: Conflict and Cooperation (1945-2000) 6 • Military struggle: The sequence of major wars and intermittent border skirmishes and tensions point to a concerted military struggle over Kashmir by both the states of India and Pakistan, which has been characterised as an “enduring rivalry” (T.V. Paul) since its inception. • The consequences of the struggle for Kashmir extend beyond India and Pakistan alone, with local, regional and international dimensions. 1.1 Understanding the Indo-Pakistani conflict over Kashmir • Often depicted by historians as ‘the unfinished business of partition’ of the Indian subcontinent, Kashmir has been the focus of a long and bloody conflict between the Indians, the Pakistanis, and the frequently forgott en Kashmiris since 1947. Akin to the struggle between the Israelis and the Palestinians, both Indians and Pakistanis have made irreconcilable claims over this territory under dispute. • These claims over the divided state of Kashmir have been rooted in ethnicity, religion, territory and irredentism. Their conflict over Kashmir has beleaguered relations between India and Pakistan within months of their creation in 1947. In addition to fighting 3 major wars (1947 -48,