Theme III 1b Indo-Pakistani Conflict (1947-1972)

Theme III 1b: Indo-Pakistani Conflict (1947-1972) 1 “Not forever does the bulbul sing In balmy shades of bowers, Not forever lasts the spring Nor ever blossom the flowers. Not forever reigneth joy, Sets the sun on days of bliss, Friendships not forever last, They know not life, who know not this.” -Train to Pakistan 1 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India%E2%80%93Pakistan_wars_and_conflicts#/media/File:1971_Instrument_of_Surr ender_WaPo.jpg Those in red indicate things that may be problematic

Key Concepts 1. Peace a. Absence of War b. Interests of different parties catered to without the need to resort to war 2. Cooperation a. State and non-state actors adjust their behaviour to the anticipated or actual preferences of others through policy coordination b. Exhibited by i. Participating in peace negotiations ii. A few actors allying themselves against a greater common enemy 3. Conflict a. Incompatible or competitive interests, hence countries strive to reduce the gains available to other states or impede their achievements b. Attributed to divergence in political security, economic or ideological interests 4. Conflict development a. Start, development/protraction, resolution Causes (Outbreak of Conflict) 1. Decolonisation a. Poorly planned plans failed to account for the complex rivalrous religious situation in India, setting the basis for tensions along religious lines i. 1947 Partition plan stipulated that Muslim majority Bengal and Punjab not be awarded to Pakistan but split due to the substantial non-muslim populations. This provoked reactions like that of Tara Singh, a Sikh activist to brandish a sword in a rally and tear apart a Muslim League flag. ii. Withdrawal of the British meant that there was no external arbiter like the British Indian Army to keep internal divisions in check. Tensions along ideological lines were able to boil over and manifest into conflict b. Post war economic interests as well as the desire to rid itself of colonialism led to hastily plans that lacked adequate time for the partition of India to be carefully considered, it also meant inadequate preparation to ensure smooth execution i. Mountbatten, due to his desire to return to the navy swiftly, sped the timetable by 10 months. Leaving only 72 days to divide an India that housed a complex ethnic and religious demographic. This left the future of over 656 princely states inadequately deliberated over. This resulted in tensions between India and Pakistan over the ownership of Junagadh, Hyderabad and Kashmir. ii. The partition plan forced millions to be uprooted to immigrate, however, few or no arrangements were made to police the immigration routes. The Punjab Boundary Force had to maintain order over an area with 15 million with only 50000. Crime flourished with about a million deaths. Violence and disorder that accompanied partition → embittered both India and Pakistan to such

a high degree that the possibility of misunderstanding increased significantly + remained crippled by the narratives built around memories of the crimes of partition 2. Nationalism a. Political battle between competing nationalisms and visions of state building made possession of Kashmir central to the legitimacy of India and Pakistan’s national ideology. Nationalistic claims rendered fighting a corollary due to their unreconcilable nature. i. Muslim majority Kashmir belonging to India boosted its secular nationalist ideology. Belonging to Pakistan would boost Jinnah’s 2 nation theory. Furthermore, as Pakistan is said to be a consequence of the conviction that a separate Muslim homeland must be created, Kashmir’s inclusion justifies and completes Pakistan’s statehood. ( 1st and 2nd IP War can be attributed partly to an opportunity for Pakistan to absorb Kashmir) ii. The secular Awami League’s pressure for autonomy in East Pakistan undermined Pakistan’s irredentist claims on Kashmir and Islam as a binding force over Pakistan. India leveraged on this to exploit its own interests of advancing its secular nationalist ideology by fuelling rebellion and forcing Pakistan into the 3rd IP War. 3. Religion a. Religion was an important distinction between Indian and Pakistani identities and a source of identity for each group to rally around. Governments forced to stand up for their religious interests in order to maintain their ideological based legitimacy at the the expense of each other, contributing to tensions. i. Congress party relied on communal minded support that emphasised Hinduism. Near partition, they became aggressively insensitive towards the Muslim community, allowing Hindus to join its supposed secular paramilitary and played active roles in religious riots. Strengthened Pakistan’s resolve to acquire Kashmir to protect Muslims. ii. Discontent towards India’s harsh and corrupt rule exploded in 1963 when a hair from Muhammad’s beard was stolen from Kasmir. This provoked widespread protests by Muslims until they were brutally suppressed by Indian forces. Consequently, Pakistan’s foreign minister, Ali Bhutto and other militants egged Ayub to war with India. ( 2nd IP conflict) b. Kashmir was significant in respective ethnic/religious identities. Due to the religious importance, Kashmir was sought after and disputed with so much fervour while concessions were undoubtedly off the table. The importance of Kashmir also hardened both parties against any resolution and eased them towards aggression. i. Brahmins, apex of the caste system in India trace their lineage to the Aryan Hindus of Kashmir esteemed for fine features, fair skin and aristocratic positions. To Hindus, Kashmir was the purest source of their culture and was unwilling to share Kashmir with Pakistan. Tashkent Declaration of 1966 mediated by the

Soviets only acknowledged the dispute but saw no progress towards resolution. (Protracted conflict) ii. Kashmir’s shining lakes, snow-capped mountains have been a repository of high Islamic culture for centuries and they had features that embodied the Quran's description of Jannah. This made the Pakistanis unwilling to relinquish the Quran's heaven on earth to the Indian Hindus. This prompted them to leverage on Muslim uprisings in Western Kashmir to force accession by using Pathan tribes to invade Kashmir (1st IP War) c. However, religion was sidelined as a foreign policy consideration as the conflict developed, resulting in