SAJC Cluster 1 Lecture 8 Notes (Transboundary Water Resources)

St Andrew’s Junior College H2 Cluster 1: Development, Economy and Environment H2_Cluster 1_Lecture 8_2024/pg 1 Lecture 8 Managing Resources (II): Transboundary Water Resources KEY QUESTION: How do we manage conflicts over transboundary water resources? With the completion of this lecture, attached readings and tutorial, you should be able to discuss: - transboundary nature of rivers that are shared by multiple countries - conflicts between countries sharing transboundary water resources due to negative impacts of the actions of one country on another - varying success of strategies to manage conflicts over transboundary water resources Lecture Outline 8.1 The transboundary nature of rivers: Definition and occurrence 8.2 Factors that contribute to conflict over transboundary water resources 8.2.1 Quantity of water Box 1: How China turned off the tap on the Mekong River 8.2.2 Quality of water Box 2: Pollution in River Danube Basin 8.2.3 Environmental impacts 8.3 Strategies to manage conflicts over transboundary water resources 8.3.1 International Water Agreements (Treaties) (a) What is a water agreement? (b) Why are water agreements difficult to set up and enforce? 8.3.2 Transboundary water cooperation 8.4 End note: Will we go to war over water? Box 3: International cooperation over water far outweighs conflict Readings: (1) The Mekong Agreement and the Mekong River Commission (2) The Israeli-Jordan Water Agreement (3) The Aral Sea Basin Project by GEF The Mekong River runs through six countries, with China being the uppermost riparian state. China’s recent construction of multiple dams has in various ways affected its lower stream riparian neighbours, especially water supply. This cartoon hints at the power relations at play among these countries.

St Andrew’s Junior College H2 Cluster 1: Development, Economy and Environment H2_Cluster 1_Lecture 8_2024/pg 2 8.1 The transboundary nature of rivers: Definition and occurrence • While flowing in its natural course, a river may not necessarily follow state boundaries. • Transboundary rivers and river basins are shared by two or more countries to support the lives and livelihoods of vast numbers of people across the world. Countries that adjoin or may directly influence a river and its basin are referred to as riparian. • There are more than 260 transboundary lakes and river basins in the world, and collectively cover almost half the Earth’s surface (see Table 1 and Fig. 1). Sound management is essential, especially in areas vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and where water is already scarce. • Table 1 highlights the predominance of transboundary river and lake systems within the developing world. Although the majority of international water bodies are shared by only two countries, there are nine river basins and lakes which cut across more than six cou ntries. Except for the Danube (19 countries) and the Rhine (9 countries), all of these systems – the Niger, Nile, Zaire, Zambezi, Amazon, Lake Chad and the Mekong – are in the developing world. Table 1: Distribution of transboundary river basins and lakes by continents Continents No. of rivers and lakes extending into two or more countries % of area within international basins Asia 53 39 Europe 71 54 North America 39 35 South America 38 60 Africa 60 62 Total 261 45.3 (excluding Antarctica) Fig. 1

St Andrew’s Junior College H2 Cluster 1: Development, Economy and Environment H2_Cluster 1_Lecture 8_2024/pg 3 • There are a few ways in which transboundary rivers and their basins are shared ( Fig. 2). The same situations can also apply to lakes and aquifers. o Between neighbours sharing a common boundary river. o Between upstream and downstream riparian countries, i.e. where a river flows through one country first and later through another. o A combination of the above two ways. Fig. 2 • Particularly, Africa is in a challenging standing where it plays host to many of the largest river systems of the globe. Despite the potential for resource disputes presented by the geography of the African continent, conflicts over water have surfaced more predominantly in the more developed and faster developing regions of the world (Table 2). Table 2: The location of major international water disputes River Countries in dispute Issues Nile Egypt, Ethiopia, Sudan Siltation, flooding, water flow and diversion Ganges—Brahmaputra Bangladesh, India Siltation, flooding, water flow Mekong Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam Water flow, flooding Lauca Bolivia, Chile Dam, Salinisation Rhine France, Netherlands, Switzerland, Germany Industrial pollution Maas, Scheide Belgium, Netherlands Salinisation, industrial pollution 8.2 Factors that contribute to conflict over transboundary water resources • A conflict can be defined as a disagreement over the appropriate course of action to be taken in a particular situation. A minimum of two parties must therefore be involved. o Conflict abounds as individuals and groups have different values, priorities, interests, and hopes for the future. Conflicts take place between neighbours, communities, states, regions, and nations. o Areas of severe water conflict correlate with water scarcity (i.e. demand for water exceeds availability of water); hence, the regions with the greatest conflict and potential for conflict are in regions such as Middle East, and the Indian subcontinent. • We know that water is a valuable resource which is finite and unevenly distributed across the earth. This becomes especially crucial with the increase in demand as population increase. When water becomes a scarce resource, its availability (or quantity) and quality will, and has, become major environmental issues. Hence, management is responsible for the organi sed control and allocation of the water resource according to a set of priorities and criteria .

St Andrew’s Junior College H2 Cluster 1: Development, Economy and Environment H2_Cluster 1_Lecture 8_2024/pg 4 • Around half of the world’s population lives in areas fed by a transnational river, meaning that the water available for supporting a country’s water-dependent socioeconomic development may originate from rain falling outside its borders. Due to this heightened significance of transboundary water systems for national economies and politics, these states tend to keep up with actions of one another and clash over the question of how to develop and use these systems. • The United Nations recognises the potential for up to 60 transboundary conflict ‘hotspots’ globally; more than 50 countries on 5 continents might be caught up in disputes unless agreements (see Section 8.3) on how to share rivers, reservoirs and aquifers are made. • While the underlying reasons for water-related controversy can be numerous, such as power struggles and competing development interests, conflict over water supply is usually influenced by an interplay of various factors. (See below) 8.2.1 Quantity of water • Competing claims for a limited quantity of water are the most obvious reason for water related conflict. The potential for tensions over allocation increases when the resource is scarce. (See Reading 1 on Mekong River Basin and Reading 2 on Jordan River Basin) • The damming and diversion of water by upstream states have influenced flow regimes further downstream. Hence, for transboundary rivers, the locations of dams can be very contentious as the affected segments could be in other countries which have no ownership over the dams. o For instance, dam projects in China can affect the lower riparians of the Mekong, such as Vietnam. This situation become tricky as the benefits such as hydropower production will be reaped by the upstream states