Paper 1 Theme 3 — Safeguarding International Peace and Security

H2History(Paper 1)Theme3: SafeguardingInternational PeaceandSecurity QUESTIONSTOPREPARE ● Whyweresome____moreeffectivethanothers?○ UNOrgans○ UNSG○ PKO○ Reforms● Assesstheeffectiveness/ relevanceof○ UN○ UNGA○ UNSC○ UNSG○ PKO○ ICJ○ Reforms■ Sovereignty■ Great Power politics■ Operational constraints■ Regionalism● Effectivenessdependedon/ hinderedbyOREvaluatetheroleof:○ ColdWar [GA/SC/SG/PKO/ICJ]○ US[GA/SC/SG/PKO/ICJ/Reforms]○ USSR[GA/SC/SG/PKO/ICJ/Reforms]○ P5interests[GA/SC/SG/PKO/ICJ/Reforms]○ UNCharter / Structural weaknesses[GA/SC/SG/PKO/ICJ]○ Local actors/ requirement of consent [SG/PKO/ICJ]○ P5veto[SC]○ Entryof newmembers[GA]● Comparative○ Whichwasabigger hindrance: UNGAor UNSC○ Whichplayedabigger role/ moreeffective: UNGAor UNSC○ Whichhadreal power: UNGAor UNSC○ Whichplayedabigger role/ moreeffective: UNSGor UNSC○ Whichwasmoresuccessful: ICJor Reforms● Weirdquestions○ Revitalised/ moreeffectiveafter theColdWar [GA/SC/SG/PKO/ICJ]○ Sec-Genswereaproduct of their time○ Sec-Genshadtheir handstied○ Moresecretarythangeneral / morepassivethanactive○ Maintaininginternational lawwastheUN’sgreatest achievement○ UNsuccessesinmaintaininginternational lawwasdependent onICJ○ UNwasnot adequatelypreparedfor post-ColdWar challenges

○EndofColdWarchangedtheUNSG’srole○InherentweaknesseswererevealedwiththeendoftheColdWar○ColdwarrivalrymadetheUNGAmorerelevant/important○TowhatextenthastheUnitedNationsPeacekeepingmaintainedrelevanceinthepursuitofinternationalpeaceandsecuritysinceitsinception?○Problemsremainedthesame○UNSCreformwasthemostimportantaspectofreform○ReformsweremoreeffectiveaftertheColdWar CASESTUDIES Year(s) Issue UNGA UNSC Sec-Gens Peacekeeping1947 IndianPartition● Britain,inwithdrawingfromBritishIndia,partitioneditintoIndiaandPakistan Hiddenveto● NotdebatedduetoBritishinvolvement 1948-94 ApartheidSouthAfrica● Institutionalisedracialsegregation Ineffectivecondemnation● 1962:Resolution1761condemnedapartheidSouthAfrica● Thatsaid,itdidnotendapartheidnorpreventMandela’simprisonmentin1964Effectivecondemnation● 1987:UNGAadoptsavoluntaryoilembargoincludingover130nationsonapartheidSouthAfrica● Apartheidcollapsesintheearly1990s CooperationwithOrganisationofAfricanUnity,theCommonwealthandEU● 1992:UNobserverforcestomonitordevelopmentsinpost-apartheidSouthAfricawerecomplementedbyOAU,CommonwealthandEUstaff 1948- Israel-PalestineConflict● ContinuedviolencebetweenIsraelisandPalestinians,duetocompetingclaimsoverthesameland 1947:Constrainedbylocalactors● Resolution181(II)recommendedapartitiontoresolveviolence● Neverimplemented,duetofiercePalestinianoppositiontotheplan1980,1997:IneffectiveUFP● IssuepassedtotheUNGAaftertheUSvetointheUNSC● UNGAresolutionshavebeenignoredbyIsraelandtheUSMeaninglessresolutions● 1975:Resolution3379(“Zionismequalsracism”)passedthenrepealed 1967:Frameworkforconsensusbuilding● Resolution242passedunanimouslyafterweeksofnegotiation,despitemajoranimositybetweenIsraelandtheArabstatesinitially● ContributedtopeacetreatiesbetweenIsraelandEgypt(1979)andJordan(1994),aswellasthe1993and1995agreementswiththePalestiniansSourceofrisingUSvetoes● 1990-2006:12outof19vetoeswereusedtoblocklanguagethatcondemnsIsrael

1950-53 KoreanWar● NorthKoreainvadestheSouth● UNintervenesmilitarily● Militarystalemateandarmistice IntroductionofUFP● TopreventfurtherSovietvetoesEffectivecondemnation● 1951:Resolution500recommendedatradeembargoagainstthePeople’sRepublicofChinaandNorthKoreaforaggressionintheKoreanWar● 47nationsimposedanembargo,forcingthePRCandNorthKoreatodependonSovietassistance Article42invokedtoallowforUNmilitaryintervention● US-ledcampaign● SovietswereboycottingtheUN Article99invokedtoconvenetheUNSCSovietvetoofreappointment● LieproactivelyinvokedArticle99oftheUNChartertoconvenetheSecurityCouncilandlobbyforaUNinterventionintheKoreanWaragainstSovietforces● USSRvetoedhisre-appointmentin1952 1954-62 AlgerianWar● AlgerianNationalLiberationFrontfoughttheFrenchtosecureindependence Hiddenveto● NotdebatedduetoFrenchinvolvement 1955 PekingFormula● Hammarskjoldnegotiatedthereleaseof15USairmendetainedbyChina Fosteringdiplomacy● HammarskjoldpersonallyvisitedBeijingandnegotiatedthereleaseof15USairmendetainedbyChina1956 SuezCrisis● Egypt’sNassernationalisestheSuezCanalCompany● Israel,thenBritainandFrance,invadeEgypt● USpressurestheinvasiontowithdraw EffectiveUFP● USinvokedtheUFPtobypassBritishandFrenchvetoes● UNGAresolutionsestablishedUNEFI,whichmaintainedpeaceuntil1967DependentonP5cooperation● USplacedeconomicpressureonFranceandBritain,leadingtotheirwithdrawalinaweek Effectivepeacekeeping● OversawadecadeofpeaceConstrainedbylocalactors● 1967:Egypt’sNasserordersthewithdrawalofUNEFI● SixDayWarerupts Effectivepeacekeeping● OversawadecadeofpeaceConstrainedbylocalactors● 1967:Egypt’sNasserordersthewithdrawalofUNEFI● SixDayWarerupts 1956 SovietinvasionofHungary● HungarianRevolutionthreatenedSovietinterests● SuppressedbyaUSSRinvasion IneffectiveUFP● USSRvetoledtotheissuebeingpassedtotheUNGA● UNGAcouldnotstopthesuppressionoftheHungarianRevolutionConstrainedbylocalactors● Observationcommissionwasnotallowedin USSRveto● USSRvetoedaresolutioncallingforitswithdrawal Constrainedbylocalactors● Observationcommissionwasnotallowedin ConstrainedbyUSSRinterests● Nopeacekeepingmissionestablished 1958 LebanonCrisis● DeploymentoftheUNObservationGroupinLebanoninJune● FightingbrokeoutinJuly Observersandenvoys● Pre-emptivelypreventedtheinfiltrationofSyrianweaponsbeforefightingbrokeoutinJuly

● Swiftresolutionofthecrisisinthreemonths ● Helpedtocontainthescaleofviolenceandresolvethecrisisinthreemonths1960 LaosCoup● Hammarskjoldhadsentanenvoyin1959● MilitarycoupinAugust1960● Swiftlyresolvedin3weekswithanagreementbrokeredbyHammarskjold’senvoy Observersandenvoys● Hammarskjoldhadsentanenvoyin1959● MilitarycoupinAugust1960● Swiftlyresolvedin3weekswithanagreementbrokeredbyHammarskjold’senvoy1960-65 CongoCrisis● Congobecomesindependent● KatangasecedeswithBelgiansupport● PMLumumbaappealsforSovietaid● 1965:ONUCsuccessfullystabilisesthecountryevenafteraBelgianinvasion,aninsurrectioninKatangaandthecollapseofthecentralgovernment EffectiveUFP● SovietvetointheUNSCledtotheinvocationoftheUFP,passingthemattertotheUNGA● UNGAresolutionsconfirmedthemandateoftheUNOperationintheCongo(ONUC)andcollectedcontributionsforaUNfundfortheCongo● LasttimethatanemergencysessionundertheUFPcalledforspecificmeasures Frameworkforconsensusbuilding● Althoughtherewereinitialdisagreementsontheactionsthatshouldbetaken,extendeddebatesdidresultinacompromisethatwaseventuallyagreeabletoall● 5UNSCresolutionswerepassedwithoutanyveto Article99invokedtoconvenetheUNSCEffectivepeacekeeping● ONUCsuccessfullystabilisesthecountryevenafteraBelgianinvasion,aninsurrectioninKatangaandthecollapseofthecentralgovernmentTroikaProposal● HammarskjoldoffendedtheUSSRin1960byrefusingtoplaceONUCpeacekeepersinserviceoftheSoviet-backedLumumba● USSRproposedscrappingthecurrentSec-GenandreplacingitwiththreeSec-Gens,withoneappointedbytheWest,onebytheSovietsandonefrom‘others’LikelyUSSRvetoofreappointment● USSRwouldhavevetoedHammarskjold’sreappointmenthadhenotdiedintheplanecrash Effectivepeacekeeping● ONUCsuccessfullystabilisesthecountryevenafteraBelgianinvasion,aninsurrectioninKatangaandthecollapseofthecentralgovernmentTimelyresponse● UNtroopslandedintheCongojust4daysafterKatangaseceded 1962 CubanMissileCrisis● USdiscoversSovietmissilesonCuba● Tenseconfrontationandnavalblockade,beforethesituationisresolved Frameworkforconsensusbuilding● USandRussianambassadorsdebatedtheissueintheUNSCon24and25October Fosteringdiplomacy● UThanthelpedtomediatetheresolutionofthecrisis 1964 CyprusCrisis● IntercommunalviolencebetweenGreekandTurkishCypriots P5cooperation● Resolution186recommendedthecreationofapeacekeepingforce● ManagedtostabiliseCyprusuntiltheTurkishinvasionin1974 Effectivepeacekeeping● UNFICYPstabilisedCyprusuntiltheTurkishinvasionin1974 Effectivepeacekeeping● UNFICYPstabilisedCyprusuntiltheTurkishinvasionin1974Constrainedbylocalactors● 1974:TurkeyinvadesCyprus,disruptingthepeace

1964-73 Viet