RI Science Lecture 1 (Scientific Method and Problems) 2023

SCIENCELecture 1: The Scientific Method and its Accompanying Problems

Overview The Scientific Method Problems with Observation Problems with Testing Hypotheses

The Problem of Demarcation◦Context: Science enjoys much respect today because of the great boon it has been for society◦To the point where if there are two or more rival claims, then we are more likely to believe the one that is scientifically based (whether this is justified or not is open for debate)◦i.e. we tend to privilege Science over any other body of knowledge◦E.g. Religion (existence of God), Philosophy (metaphysics –what is real and what isn’t), Literature (insight into the human psyche)◦Many have thus claimed that their claims are “based on science”◦So we have to be able to decide what is scientific and what is not◦This is the Problem of Demarcation◦One of the most common and intuitive ways to do this is to ask if a certain claim has been arrived at/constructed by the Scientific Method

Why does the pen fall when it is let go of from a height?

Hypothetico-Deductive Method MethodExample1. Science begins with an interesting observationThe pen drops when let go of from a height2. Observation leads to a hypothesis (via inductive reasoning)“There must be a force (gravity) working on all things that pull them downwards.”3. Hypothesis allows us to make a prediction (via deductive reasoning) and to then design an experiment to test it Prediction: “Any other item when let go of from a height will also fall.”Experiment: Drop multiple items from a height4. After many instances of corroboration via the experiments, the hypothesis is verified and gains the status of a law (otherwise, it is falsified) Gravity pulls things downwards towards the centerof the Earth 5. Eventually, the law is worked into a theory which unifies various other lawsNewtonian Mechanics

Another Example◦Observation: Ptolemy’s model of planetary motions is too complicated◦Hypothesis: Sun as the centre of the solar system, Earth revolves around it◦Experiment/ Prediction: Venus should seem to vary in size to us if Copernicus is right; not so if Ptolemy is right◦Law: Kepler’s laws of planetary motions◦Theory which unifies and explains various laws: Newtonian Mechanics

Other Key Features◦A good experiment should also have:◦1) Measurability of Variables: these allow for precision and objectivity (non-biasedness)◦E.g. Counting the instances of things falling to the ground when let go of from a height◦2) Controllability of Variables: you should be able to vary only one factor at a time so that you can determine its effect◦E.g. Changing the objects being dropped while keeping the environment constant, or testing a range of environments with a standardised set of objects◦3) Repeatability: with controllability, your experiment can now be repeated by otherpeople so that they can check and confirm your results –again, objectivity◦E.g. Other people letting go of things from a height across the Earth

Preliminary Comments◦Imagination plays a key role and can even go against our intuition as well as what our senses tell us (e.g. Copernican revolution –the Earth moves instead of the Sun)◦Technology extends our powers of observation which then helps us to develop better justified scientific theories (e.g. Galileo was only able to detect the change in the apparent size of Venus with the use of a telescope –this allowed him to verify his hypothesis while falsifying Ptolemy’s)◦Anomalies are an important part of science –they help us to develop better theories (e.g. Galileo looking through the telescope and realising that contrary to Ptolemy’s prediction, Venus doesvary in size in its orbit)

Problems ◦Given the huge importance and utility of science today, it would seem that the Scientific Method is the high water-mark of knowledge construction and that it can do no wrong◦But there are problems for the SM and this can be broken down to its various stages:◦Problems with Observation◦Problems with Testing Hypotheses

Problems with Observation◦A.k.a. the Data gathering Stage◦Relevance–There is always an infinite number of possible variables to observe at any one time.◦Yet in order to do science, we need to be able to determine which variable is relevant and which isn’t. ◦Otherwise, we can never get down to actually doing the experiment◦Not to mention that it is physically impossible to observe every possible variable at any one time◦But how to decide? Are our decisions merely another form of bias?